A vision of Ireland through time
A vision of Ireland from 1821 onwards.
Including maps, statistical trends and historical descriptions.
A vision of Ireland through time
A vision of Ireland from 1821 onwards.
Including maps, statistical trends and historical descriptions.
1841 Census of Great Britain, Occupations (Sample Report Title: Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to Acts 3 & 4 Vict. c. 99, and 4 Vict. c. 7, intituled respectively " An Act "for taking an Account of the Population of Great Britain," and "An Act to amend the "Acts of the last Session for taking an Account of the Population." Occupation Abstract, 1841: Part I. England and Wales, and Islands in the British Seas), Table [1] : " Occupation Abstract".
| Show Lincolnshire AncC table | Lincolnshire County O41area |
|---|
| OCCUPATIONS |
Males
|
Females
|
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
20 Years of Age and upwards
[1] |
Under 20 Years of Age
[2] |
20 Years of Age and upwards
[3] |
Under 20 Years of Age
[4] |
|
| Accountant |
15 
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Actor (Play) |
25
|
3
|
5
|
0
|
| Agent and Factor (branch not specified) |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Agricultural Implement-maker |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Animal and Bird-preserver |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Architect |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Army |
36
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Army, Half-pay |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Artist |
10
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Attorney and Solicitor |
136
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
| Auctioneer, Appraiser, and House Agent |
40
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Baker |
389
|
51
|
29
|
1
|
| Bank Agent |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Banker |
11
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Barrister and Conveyancer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Basket-maker |
84
|
9
|
0
|
0
|
| Bath-keeper |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bed and Mattress-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Beehive-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Blacking-maker and dealer |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Blacksmith |
1,431
|
322
|
16
|
0
|
| Bleacher |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Block and Mast-maker |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Boat and Barge Owner |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Boat and Barge-builder |
18
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
| Boat and Bargeman and Woman |
285
|
30
|
1
|
0
|
| Bone Grinder |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bone-collecter and Dealer |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Bookseller and Bookbinder |
51
|
11
|
2
|
0
|
| Boot and Shoe-maker |
2,982
|
524
|
52
|
6
|
| Brass-founder |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Brazier, Tinker, and Brass-worker |
105
|
16
|
3
|
0
|
| Brewer |
152
|
5
|
8
|
0
|
| Brick and Tile-maker |
652
|
98
|
5
|
0
|
| Bricklayer |
1,013
|
134
|
1
|
0
|
| Broker (branch not specified) |
11
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Broker, Stock |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Brush and Broom-maker |
15
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
| Builder |
123
|
21
|
2
|
0
|
| Butcher |
817
|
81
|
18
|
0
|
| Butter-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Button-maker |
2
|
0
|
9
|
4
|
| Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer |
205
|
52
|
6
|
0
|
| Canal Service |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cap-maker |
0
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
| Card-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Carpenter and Joiner |
2,310
|
411
|
4
|
0
|
| Carpet and Rug-manufacture |
27
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Carrier, Carter, and Waggoner |
304
|
2
|
6
|
0
|
| Carver and Gilder |
13
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cattle-dealer |
80
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
| Cellarman |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Chain-maker |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Chair-maker |
50
|
8
|
2
|
0
|
| Charwoman |
0
|
0
|
316
|
4
|
| Cheesemonger and Factor |
5
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Chemist and Druggist |
182
|
73
|
0
|
0
|
| Chimney-sweeper |
56
|
40
|
0
|
0
|
| China, Earthenware, and Glass-dealer |
15
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
| China-mender |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Clergyman |
237
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Clerk |
409
|
60
|
0
|
1
|
| Clock and Watch-maker |
122
|
18
|
3
|
0
|
| Clothier |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coachmaker (all branches) |
77
|
35
|
2
|
0
|
| Coachman, Coach-guard, and Postboy |
64
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Coach-owner |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coal Labourer and Heaver |
43
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Coal Merchant and Dealer |
77
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
| Coal Meter |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Coal-agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Commission Agent |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Cooper |
124
|
22
|
1
|
0
|
| Cork-cutter |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Corn Meter |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Corn Porter |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Corn-dealer and Factor |
19
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Cotton Manufacture |
4
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
| Currier and Leather-seller |
93
|
13
|
4
|
1
|
| Cutler |
20
|
4
|
2
|
0
|
| Cutler, Sword |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Dentist |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Dog-dealer and Breaker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Draper |
370
|
181
|
28
|
3
|
| Draper, Linen |
23
|
7
|
1
|
0
|
| Dress-maker and Milliner |
4
|
0
|
1,111
|
335
|
| Drover |
116
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
| Dyer and Scourer |
12
|
2
|
13
|
0
|
| Dyer, Silk |
3
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
| Dyer, Woollen |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Eating-house-keeper |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Engine and Machine-maker |
91
|
14
|
0
|
0
|
| Engineer and Engine-worker |
51
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Engineer, Civil |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Engraver |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Factory-worker (branch not specified) |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Farm-bailiff and Land-steward |
77
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Farmer and Grazier |
10,395
|
77
|
622
|
7
|
| Farrier, Cattle-doctor and Veterinary Surgeon |
159
|
6
|
1
|
0
|
| Feather-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Feather-dresser |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fellmonger |
64
|
4
|
1
|
0
|
| Figure-maker |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| File-maker |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fireman |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fish-curer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Fisherman |
132
|
8
|
0
|
0
|
| Fishmonger |
44
|
3
|
6
|
0
|
| Flax-dresser |
16
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Flour Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Flour-dealer |
5
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
| Founder (branch not specified) |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| French-polisher |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Furrier |
5
|
0
|
12
|
0
|
| Gardener |
713
|
26
|
11
|
0
|
| Gas-works Service |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| General Dealer |
20
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Ginger-beer and Soda-water-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Glass-blower |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Glover and Glove-maker |
11
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, Customs and Excise |
90
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, Post-office |
29
|
2
|
10
|
0
|
| Government Civil Service, Stamps and Taxes |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Green-grocer and Fruiterer |
28
|
4
|
7
|
0
|
| Grinder |
11
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Grocer and Tea-dealer |
597
|
92
|
171
|
2
|
| Groom and Hostler |
261
|
23
|
0
|
0
|
| Gun-maker |
25
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Haberdasher and Hosier |
13
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Hair-dresser |
114
|
24
|
2
|
0
|
| Harbour Master |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hardwareman |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hatter and Hat-maker |
54
|
6
|
2
|
0
|
| Hawker, Huckster, and Pedlar |
307
|
10
|
33
|
1
|
| Hay-dealer |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Hemp Weaver and Spinner |
24
|
0
|
14
|
1
|
| Hemp-dealer |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hemp-dresser |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Herbalist |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Hop-dealer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Horse-dealer and Trainer |
73
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Insurance Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Iron Founder and Moulder |
18
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Iron-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Ironmonger |
86
|
25
|
8
|
0
|
| Jeweller and Silversmith |
14
|
3
|
2
|
0
|
| Keeper or Head of Public Institution |
28
|
0
|
18
|
1
|
| Keeper, Game, Gate, and Park |
156
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Keeper, Lighthouse |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Keeper, Lunatic Asylum |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Knitter |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Knitter, Framework |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Labourer |
2,740
|
177
|
104
|
14
|
| Labourer, Agricultural |
35,712
|
7,533
|
614
|
115
|
| Lace-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Lace-maker and Weaver |
2
|
1
|
16
|
3
|
| Land Agent |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lathe-maker |
0
|
0
|
7
|
0
|
| Lath-render |
7
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Laundry-keeper, Washer, and Mangler |
1
|
1
|
182
|
1
|
| Law Officer |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lead Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Librarian |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lime-burner |
19
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Lime-merchant |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Linen-weaver |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Livery-stable-keeper |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Locksmith and Bell-hanger |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Lodging and Boarding-house Keeper |
14
|
0
|
42
|
0
|
| Mail Contractor |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Maltster |
147
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Marine-store-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Mason, Paviour, and Statuary |
483
|
53
|
0
|
0
|
| Mat and Matting-maker |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Match-maker and Seller |
4
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Measure-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Medicine-vendor |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Merchant |
93
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Midwife |
0
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
| Milk-seller and Cow-keeper |
19
|
1
|
12
|
0
|
| Miller |
896
|
103
|
29
|
6
|
| Millwright |
71
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
| Miner, Coal |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Minister |
132
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
| Mop-maker |
0
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
| Moulder (branch not specified) |
10
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Musical Instrument-maker |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Musician and Organist |
50
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
| Music-publisher |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Mustard-dealer and Maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Nail-maker |
84
|
11
|
0
|
0
|
| Navy |
62
|
11
|
0
|
0
|
| Navy, Half-pay |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Net-maker and Dealer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
| Newpaper Editor and Reporter |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Notary and Proctor |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Nurse |
3
|
0
|
345
|
8
|
| Nurseryman and Florist |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Oil Crusher and Miller |
13
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Optician |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Organ-builder |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Packer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Painter, Plumber, and Glazier |
413
|
83
|
4
|
0
|
| Paper-hanger |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Paper-maker |
13
|
1
|
4
|
0
|
| Parchment-maker |
4
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Parochial and Church-officer |
117
|
1
|
4
|
0
|
| Pastry-cook and Confectioner |
20
|
1
|
37
|
0
|
| Patten and Clog-maker |
15
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
| Patten-ring-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pawnbroker |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Perfumer |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Physician |
11
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Piano-forte-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pig-dealer |
18
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pipe-maker |
25
|
5
|
1
|
0
|
| Plasterer |
39
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Plough-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pocket-book-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Police-officer, Constable, and Watchman |
30
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Polisher |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Porter, Messenger, and Errand-boy |
73
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Porter-merchant |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Potatoe-dealer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pot-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Potter |
34
|
14
|
3
|
0
|
| Poulterer |
12
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
| Printer |
64
|
32
|
0
|
0
|
| Print-seller |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Pump-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Quack Doctor |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Quarryman, Limestone |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Quarryman, Stone |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Quill-dresser |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Rag-dealer and Gatherer |
11
|
0
|
3
|
2
|
| Rake-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Rope and Cord-spinner and Maker |
200
|
35
|
2
|
0
|
| Sack and Bag-maker |
8
|
1
|
3
|
0
|
| Saddle tree-maker |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Saddler, and Harness and Collar-maker |
277
|
70
|
3
|
0
|
| Sail-cloth and Tarpaulin-maker and Weaver |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Sail-maker |
14
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
| Salesman |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Saw-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Sawyer |
245
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
| Scavenger |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Schoolmaster, Mistress, and Assistant; Tutor or Governess |
383
|
6
|
628
|
38
|
| Scrivener |
4
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
| Sculptor |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Seaman |
394
|
35
|
0
|
0
|
| Seaman (Pilot) |
22
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Seamstress |
0
|
0
|
68
|
4
|
| Seedsman |
10
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
| Servant, Domestic |
2,258
|
2,466
|
9,203
|
9,485
|
| Ship Agent |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Builder and Carpenter |
70
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Chandler |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Ship Owner |
10
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Shop-keeper |
85
|
1
|
74
|
0
|
| Sieve-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Silk Mercer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Silk Plush-weaver |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Silk Weaver and Winder |
1
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Skinner |
16
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Slater |
24
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
| Slop-maker and Seller |
1
|
0
|
5
|
1
|
| Soap-maker and Boiler |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Spinner (branch not specified) |
0
|
0
|
30
|
5
|
| Spring-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Starch-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stationer |
14
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
| Stationer, Law |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stay-maker |
8
|
0
|
37
|
5
|
| Steward (branch not specified) |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Steward, Ship |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stocking-maker, Knitter, and Weaver |
6
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Stock-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Stone-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Straw Bonnet and Hat-maker |
4
|
0
|
179
|
57
|
| Straw-plait-worker |
1
|
0
|
5
|
1
|
| Sugar-boiler |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Surgeon and Apothecary |
234
|
21
|
0
|
0
|
| Surveyor (branch not specified) |
36
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Surveyor, Land |
26
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Surveyor, Road |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tailor and Breeches-maker |
1,733
|
401
|
22
|
2
|
| Tallow-chandler |
21
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tanner |
83
|
16
|
2
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Beer-shop-keeper |
85
|
2
|
25
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Inn-keeper |
253
|
0
|
61
|
0
|
| Tavern-keeper, Publican and Victualler |
696
|
3
|
128
|
1
|
| Tavern-keeper, Spirit-merchant |
13
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Astronomy |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Dancing |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Drawing |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of French |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Languages |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Music |
8
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Riding |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Singing |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Teacher or Professor of Writing |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Thatcher |
36
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Tiler |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Timber-merchant |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tin-plate-worker and Tinman |
49
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
| Tobacconist and Tobacco-manufacturer |
8
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Toll-collector |
60
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
| Toll-contractor |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Tool-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Topographical Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Toy-maker and Dealer |
2
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
| Traveller, Commercial |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Tripe-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Trunk and Box-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Turf-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Turner |
34
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Umbrella and Parasol-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Vermin-destroyer |
29
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Violin-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Warehouseman |
8
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Weaver (branch not specified) |
89
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
| Well-sinker |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wharfinger |
14
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wheelwright |
893
|
265
|
5
|
0
|
| Whip-maker |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Whitesmith |
43
|
8
|
0
|
0
|
| Whiting-maker |
3
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
| Wine-merchant |
26
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
| Wire-worker |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wood Cutter and Woodman |
37
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Wood Dealer |
10
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
| Wood-bailiff and Keeper |
10
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wool Agent |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Wool-dealer and Stapler |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Woollen and Woollen-cloth Manufactue (all branches) |
38
|
3
|
5
|
2
|
| Woollen-draper |
5
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
| Worsted-dealer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
| Total Number of Persons whose Occupations are returned as above |
77,662
|
14,055
|
14,557
|
10,120
|
| Other Persons employed in Trade (branch not specified) |
180
|
210
|
23
|
13
|
| Number of Persons returned as of Independent Means |
2,073
|
41
|
5,346
|
187
|
| Almspeople, Pensioners, Paupers, and Beggars |
665
|
428
|
949
|
451
|
| Other Persons |
1,213
|
21
|
323
|
16
|
| Residue of Population |
5,870
|
62,661
|
64,842
|
65,197
|
| TOTAL POPULATION |
87,663
|
77,416
|
86,040
|
75,984
|
Click on the triangles for all about a particular number.
This website does not try to provide an exact replica of the original printed census tables, which often had thousands of rows and far more columns than will fit on our web pages. Instead, we let you drill down from national totals to the most detailed data available. The column headings are those that appeared in the original printed report. The numbers presented here, which are the same ones we use to create statistical maps and graphs, come from the census table and have usually been carefully checked.
The system can only hold statistics for units listed in our administrative gazetteer, so some rows from the original table may be missing. Sometimes big low-level units, like urban parishes, were divided between more than one higher-level units, like Registration sub-Districts. This is why some pages will give a higher figure for a lower-level unit: it covers the whole of the lower-level unit, not just the part within the current higher-level unit.